Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six āstika (Sanskrit: आस्तिक "orthodox") schools of thought,[1] or darśanam (दर्शनम्, "view"),
which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures. Three other nāstika (नास्तिक "heterodox") schools don't draw upon the Vedas as the sole primary authoritative text, but may emphasize other
traditions of thought. The āstika schools are:
6.
Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the
'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section). Vedanta came to be the dominant current
of Hinduism in the post-medieval period.
The nāstika schools are (in chronological order):
1.
Cārvāka
2.
Jainism
3.
Buddhism
However, medieval philosophers like Vidyāraṇya classify Indian philosophy into sixteen schools,
where schools belonging to Saiva, Pāṇini and Raseśvara thought are included with others, and the three Vedantic schools Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then)
are classified separately.[2]
In Hindu history, the
distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age"
of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete
by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita Vedanta
"non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main
divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as
an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
Overview
- ^ a b c Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have evolved from an older Vedanta school and all of them accept Upanishads and Brahma Sutras as standard texts.
- ^ This is the century in which Patañjali flourished. However, Yoga existed before Patañjali's lifetime.
- ^ Dated by the century in which Gaudapada flourished.
- ^ Vyasa wrote a commentary on Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.)
Samkhya
Samkhya is the oldest of the
orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism.[3] It
espouses dualism
between consciousness and matter by
postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities 1) consciousness itself or Purusha (Sanskrit:
पुरुष, self,
atma or soul) 2) primordial materiality or Prakriti (creative
agency or energy)". The unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti
consists of varying levels of three dispositions or categories of qualities (gunas)—
activity (rajas), inactivity (tamas) and
harmony (sattva). An imbalance in the intertwined
relationship of these three dispositions causes the world to evolve from
Prakriti. This evolution from Prakriti causes the creation of 23 constituents,
including intellect (buddhi,mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas).[4] Samkhya
theorizes the existence of are many living souls (Jeevatmas) who possess
consciousness, but denies the existence of Ishvara(God).[5]
Samkhya holds that Puruṣa, the
eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products
of Prakriti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in
endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that
Puruṣa is distinct from Prakriti, the Self is no longer subject to transmigration
and absolute freedom (kaivalya) arises.[6]
Western dualism deals with the
distinction between the mind and the body,[7] whereas
in Samkhya it is between the soul and matter.[8] The
concept of the atma (soul) is different from the concept of the mind and mind
itself thought to an evolute of matter, rather than the soul.[4] Soul
is absolute reality that is all-pervasive, eternal, indivisible, attributeless,
pure consciousness. It is non-matter and is beyond intellect. Originally,
Samkhya was not theistic, but in confluence with Yoga it developed a theistic
variant.
Yoga
In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of
the six orthodox philosophical schools.[9] The Yoga philosophical
system is closely allied with the Samkhya school.[10]The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts
the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya,
as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five
elements of reality.[11][12] The parallels between
Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in
popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya
without a Lord...."[13] The intimate
relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:
"These two are
regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāmkhya provides a basic
theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements,
analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha),
and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa), while Yoga treats
specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and
outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or
'isolation-integration' (kaivalya)."[14]
The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, who is regarded
as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.[15] The Sutras of the Yoga
philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali, who may have been, as Max Müller
explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without
being necessarily the author of the Sutras."[16] Hindu philosophy
distinguishes seven major branches of Yoga:[17]
·
Rāja Yoga (also referred to as
Classical Yoga), a system of yoga codified by Patañjali and classified as one of the six āstika ("orthodox") schools of Hindu
philosophy.
·
Jnana yoga, (also called buddhi-yoga[18])
centred on the faculty of discernment and 'virtually identical with the
spiritual path of Vedānta'.[19]
·
Karma-yoga,
in which the world of everyday work becomes the tool by which self is
transcended.
·
Bhakti-Yoga
the path of devoted service to God.
·
Tantra-yoga
focused on the techniques and psycho-physical teachings contained within a body
of texts called tantras.
·
Mantra-yoga,
one of the most ancient forms of yoga in which the psycho-acoustical properties
of the spoken word are used to concentrate the mind.
·
Hatha yoga, a system of physical purification designed to
reintegrate and re-balance the mind and body in preparation for Raja-yoga
(first described by Yogi Swatmarama).
Nyaya
The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. They were written by Aksapada
Gautama, probably in the second century BCE.[20] The
most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This
methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by
the majority of the Indian schools. This is comparable to the relationship
between Western science and philosophy, which was derived largely from
Aristotelian logic.
Nevertheless, Nyaya was seen by
its followers as more than logical in its own right. They believed that
obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to gain release from suffering, and
they took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and distinguish
these from mere false opinions. According to Nyaya, there are exactly four
sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony.
Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or invalid. Nyaya
developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the
closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy. The later Naiyanikas gave
logical proofs for the existence and uniqueness of Ishvara in
response to Buddhism, which, at that time, was fundamentally non-theistic. An
important later development in Nyaya was the system of Navya-NyÄya.
Vaisheshika
The Vaisheshika school postulates an
atomic pluralism in which all objects in the physical universe are reducible to
certain types of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that
causes consciousness in these atoms. The school was founded by the sage Kaṇāda (or Kana-bhuk,
literally, atom-eater) around the 2nd century BC.[21] Major ideas contained in
the Vaisheshika Sutra are:[22]
·
There are nine classes
of realities: four classes of atoms (earth, water, light and air), space (akasha),
time (kāla), direction (dik),
infinity of souls (Atman), mind (manas).
·
Individual souls are
eternal and pervade material body for a time.
·
There are seven
categories (padārtha) of experience — substance,
quality, activity, generality, particularity, inherence and non-existence.
Although the Vaisheshika school developed independently from the
Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical
theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika school differed from
the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid
knowledge, the Vaisheshika accepted only two—–perception and inference.
Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school
was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most
valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic
interpretation. Its adherents propounded unquestionable faith in the Vedas and
regular performance of the yajñas,
or fire-sacrifices. They believed in the power of the mantras and yajñas to
sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this belief, they
placed great emphasis on dharma,
which consisted of the performance of Vedic rituals.
The Mimamsa philosophers accepted
the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt they did
not sufficiently emphasize attention to right action. They believed that the
other schools of thought that aimed for release (moksha) were not allowed for complete freedom from
desire and selfishness, because the very striving for liberation stemmed from a
simple desire to be free. According to Mimamsa thought, only by acting in
accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas may one attain salvation.
The
Mimamsa school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of
Brahman and freedom. Its adherents then advocated the release or escape of the
soul from its constraints through enlightened activity. Although Mimamsa does
not receive much scholarly attention, its influence can be felt in the life of
the practising Hindu, because all Hindu ritual, ceremony, and law is influenced
by this school.
Vedanta
The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the
philosophical teachings of the Upanishads rather
than the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas. Etymologically, Vedanta means, the
last segment of knowledge in the Vedas. It is also known as the 'Jnan'
(knowledge) 'Kanda' (section). While, the earlier segments of the Vedas are
called 'Karma Kanda'. Parts of Vedas that focus on spiritual practices such as
worship, devotion and meditation are called 'Upasana Kanda'.
While the traditional Vedic
rituals continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites, a more
knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These were mystical aspects
of Vedic religion that focused on meditation,
self-discipline, and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism.
The more abstruse Vedanta is the
essence of the Vedas, as encapsulated in the Upanishads. Vedantic thought drew
on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. TheBrihadaranyaka
Upanishad is believed
to have appeared as far back as 3,000 years ago. While thirteen or so
Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most
significant contribution of Vedantic thought is the idea that
self-consciousness is continuous with and indistinguishable from consciousness
of Brahman.
The aphorisms of the Vedanta
sutras are presented in a cryptic, poetic style, which allows for a variety of
interpretations. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into six sub-schools, each
interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of
sub-commentaries.
Advaita
Main
article: Advaita Vedanta
Advaita literally means "non-duality." This
is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. Its first great
consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya (788 CE – 820 CE), who continued the
line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on
the major Vedantic scriptures and was successful in the revival and reformation
of Hindu thinking and way of life.
According to this school of
Vedanta, Brahman is
the only reality, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman. The appearance of
dualities and differences in this world is an superimposition on Brahman, called Maya. Maya is the illusionary and creative aspect
of Brahman, which causes
the world to arise. Maya is neither existent nor non-existent,
but appears to exist temporarily, as in case of any illusion (for example
mirage).
When
a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence
of Maya, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from
the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul
(Jivatman)
and Brahman. The spiritual
practices such as: devotion to God, meditation & self-less action etc. purifies the mind and indirectly
helps in perceiving the real. One whose vision is obscured by ignorance he does
not see the non-dual nature of reality; as the blind do not see the resplendent
Sun.[23] Hence,
the only direct cause of liberation is self-knowledge which directly removes
the ignorance.[24] After
realization, one sees one's own self and the Universe as the same, non-dual Brahman,
Existence-Knowledge-Bliss-Absolute.[25]
Vishishtadvaita
Main
article: Vishishtadvaita
Ramanujacharya (c. 1037–1137 CE) was the foremost
proponent of the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita or qualified non-dualism.
Vishishtadvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential
qualities or attributes. Vishishtadvaitins argued against the Advaitin
conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an
eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent
and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object
perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's
sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the
universal beingness that is Brahman.[26] Ramanuja
saw Vishnu as a
personification of Brahman.
Dvaita
Dvaita Vedanta
(dualistic conclusions of the Vedas)
school of philosophy was founded by Madhvacharya (c.
1238–1317 CE). It espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the more important
reality is that of Vishnu or
Brahman. Vishnu is the supreme Self,
God, the absolute truth of the universe, the independent reality. The second
reality is that of dependent but equally real universe that exists with its own
separate essence. Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as
individual soul (Jiva), matter, etc. exist with their own
separate reality. The distinguishing factor of this philosophy as opposed to
Advaita Vedanta (monistic conclusion of Vedas) is that God takes
on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and
controls the universe.[27]
Five
further distinctions are made— (1) Vishnu is distinct from souls; (2) Vishnu is
distinct from matter; (3) Souls are distinct from matter; (4) A soul is
distinct from another soul, and (5) Matter is distinct from other matter. Souls
are eternal and are dependent upon the will of Vishnu. This theology attempts
to address the problem of evil with the idea that souls are not created.
Because the existence of individuals is grounded in the divine, they are
depicted as reflections, images or even shadows of the divine, but never in any
way identical with the divine. Salvation therefore
is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially
dependent on the Supreme.[28]
Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda)
Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher
from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories
of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from
Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman.
Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul
and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman
is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also,
the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by
thousands of gopis, or
cowherdesses; of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion consists in
self-surrender.
Shuddhadvaita
Shuddhadvaita is the "purely non-dual"
philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE). The founding
philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of
Vallabh") or Puśtimārg ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradition
focused on the worship of Krishna.
Acintya
Bheda Abheda
Main
article: Achintya Bheda Abheda
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), was stating that the soul
or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified
as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable,
may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Sri Madhva.[29] This
philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference".
Shaivism
Early history of Shaivism is
difficult to determine.[30] However,
the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE)[31] is
considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of
Shaivism.[32] Shaivism
is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda),
dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in
his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought— Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).[2]
Pashupata
Shaivism
Pashupata Shaivism is the oldest
of the major Shaivite schools.[33] The
philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in
the 2nd century CE. Pashu inPashupati refers to the effect (or created world),
the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas,
Pati means the cause (or prinripium), the word designates the Lord, who is the
cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler.[34] Pashupatas
disapproved of the Vaishnava theology,
known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds
that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and
other desired ends. They recognized that those depending upon another and
longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon
something other than themselves. According to Pashupatas, soul possesses the
attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of
every pain'.[35]
Pashupatas
divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient
was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The
insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten
kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The
causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of
action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the
cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the
illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pashupata
Shaivism involved the union of the soul with God through the intellect.[36]
Shaiva
Siddhanta
Considered normative Tantric Shaivism,
Shaiva Siddhanta[37][38] provides
the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.[39] Being
a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an
ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).[40] This
tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts
of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars.[41]
Kashmir
Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism arose during the
eighth[42] or
ninth century CE[43] in Kashmir and
made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of
the twelfth century CE.[44] It
is categorized by various scholars as monistic[45] idealism (absolute idealism, theistic monism, realistic
idealism,[46] transcendental
physicalism or concrete monism[46]). It is a school of Śaivism consisting
of Trika and its philosophical articulation
Pratyabhijña.[47]
Even
though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies
which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman),[48] in
Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this
Consciousness.[49] This
implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti)
is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit).[50] Whereas,
Advaita holds that Brahman is inactive (niṣkriya)
and the phenomenal world is an illusion (māyā).[51] The
objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or
Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with
Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.[52]
Notes
1.
^ For an overview of
the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see:
Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.
3.
^ Sharma, C.
(1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN
81-208-0365-5, p.149
4.
^ a b Haney,
William S. Culture and
Consciousness: Literature Regained. Bucknell University Press
(August 1, 2002). P. 42. ISBN 1611481724.
5.
^ Dasgupta,
Surendranath (1992). A history of
Indian philosophy, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass Publ..
p. 258. ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8.
6.
^ Larson, Gerald
James. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal
Banarasidass, 1998. P. 13. ISBN
81-208-0503-8.
7.
^ Sarles, Harvey
(9780816613533). Language and
human nature: toward a grammar of interaction and discourse. University of Minnesota Press. p. 6.
11.
^ For Yoga
acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see:
Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
12.
^ For Yoga as
accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the addition of God, see:
Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
15.
^ For Patanjali as
the founder of the philosophical system called Yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta,
p. 42.
17.
^ The following
classification comes from The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra byGeorg Feuerstein
20.
^ B. K. Matilal
"Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge"
(Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.
22.
^ Knapp, Stephen.
The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and
Illumination. iUniverse, Inc. (June 20, 2005). P. 22. ISBN 0595350755.
26.
^ Christopher Etter
(30 April 2006). A Study of
Qualitative Non-Pluralism. iUniverse. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-595-39312-1.
27.
^ Etter,
Christopher. A Study of
Qualitative Non-Pluralism. iUniverse Inc. P. 59-60. ISBN
0-595-39312-8.
28.
^ Fowler, Jeaneane
D. Perspectives of
Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex
Academic Press. P. 340-344. ISBN
1-898723-93-1.
29.
^ Lord Chaitanya (krishna.com)
"This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous
oneness and difference."
30.
^ Tattwananda, Swami
(1984), Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship (First
Revised ed.), Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd., p. 45.
32.
^ Chakravarti,
Mahadev (1994), The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages(Second
Revised ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 9, ISBN 81-208-0053-2.
37.
^ Xavier
Irudayaraj,"Saiva Siddanta," in the St. Thomas Christian
Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.10 ff.
38.
^ Xavier Irudayaraj,
"Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures" in the St. Thomas
Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.14
ff.
50.
^ Ksemaraja, trans.
by Jaidev Singh, Spanda Karikas: The Divine Creative Pulsation, Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, p.119
References
·
Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An
Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint Edition ed.).
Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
·
Cowell, E. B.; Gough, A. E. (2001). The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or
Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner's Oriental Series.
Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-24517-3.
·
Dyczkowski, Mark S. G. (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration:
An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism. Albany, New
York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-88706-432-9.
·
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
·
Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to
Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
·
Flood, Gavin (2005). The Tantric Body: The Secret
Tradition of Hindu Religion. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1845110110.
·
Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian
Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta
(India) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7661-4296-5. Reprint edition; Originally published under the
title of The Six Systems of
Indian Philosophy.
·
Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A
Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
·
Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies
of India. New York, New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1. Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Campbell.
Further reading
·
Radhakrishnan,
Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton
paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
·
Rambachan, Anantanand.
"The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.
·
Zilberman, David B., The Birth of Meaning in Hindu Thought. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht,
Holland, 1988. ISBN 90-277-2497-0. Chapter 1. "Hindu Systems of Thought
as Epistemic Disciplines".
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